1 19th-century to early 20th century: Berlin University Oriental Language School Japanese Lecturers

        There were many cases where the pre-war Japanese language classes offered in Europe, as well as those taught by local lecturers, were also taught by Japanese lecturers. The number of Japanese lecturers was not less than 70 people (cumulative total number of people). Particularly, at the Berlin University Oriental Language School, as since its establishment, there was a system where German people and native language speakers taught in pairs, since the first Japanese language teacher Inoue Tetsujirou many exchange students have taught Japanese at Berlin University. The lecture syllabus at that time, teachers’ records, etc., are saved in the university archives, and records relating to teachers taking new posts still remain in Japanese diplomatic materials. Amongst the lecturers, there is also a person who left a memoir. Let us summarise the figures of the Japanese language lecturers at that time and the class content, etc.

2 The Provision of Japanese Language Teachers: Sazanami

        The experience of teaching a native language as a foreign language overflows with new discoveries of language normally unnoticed. Amidst the rapidly advancing moderisation of the Meiji period, there were proposals and movements that were a breath of fresh air for the Japanese language, but this is an example that those with experience of Japanese language education propelled. Inoue Tetsujirou, who advanced the new style poetry (shintaishi) movement, as well as children's author Iwaya Sazanami who made suggestions for the notation of the Japanese language, had the experience of having taught Japanese language at the Berlin University Oriental Language School. Sazanami wrote "Yoko Miyage" (1st vol.) and (2nd vol.) of his experience in Germany. Based on Japanese language circumstances in the Meiji period, let us summarise the substance of his proposal and the details thereafter.

3 Berlin University Oriental Language School's Lange and Hamburg Colonial Institute's Florenz

        Amongst the hired foreign people who stayed in Japan in the Meiji period, there are those who, after returning to their countries, taught Japanese language and literature at universities. Karl Florenz, who acted as a Tokyo Imperial University's lecturer in German and German literature, taught Japanese language and literature as a Professor of Japan studies at the Hamburg Colonial Institute, founded in 1914. In his 20-year experience of staying in Japan, he researched the manyoshu, was awarded a doctorate from Tokyo Imperial University, and had exchanges with Japanese scholars. In particular, Ueda Kazutoshi and his "Hikakubungaku Ronso" (1895) was the genesis of a dispute where Florenz had translated a Japanese tanka poem in the form of Western descriptive poetry. Let us summarise the experience of the establishment of the role of the Hamburg Colonial Insitute professor of Japanese studies and the achievements of Florenz, Germany's first professor.

4 Japanese Language Textbooks Created in Germany

        One hired foreigner, Rudolf Lange, zealously studied Japanese besides teaching German at Tokyo Medical School (now Tokyo University's medical faculty). After returning to Germany, he served as the first Japanese language lecturer at the University of Berlin and created Japanese language textbooks and dictionaries. Around the same time, his colleague Hermann Prout also created the Japanese language textbook "Nihongo Tokuhon." Introducing Japanese language textbooks created at that time as a topic, let us summarise the features of their explanatory contents.

5 19th Century: Paris' Rosny and Fukuzawa Yukichi

        In France, the Oriental language school library attached to the University of Paris was established, and teaching of Oriental languages began. The Japanese language department was established in 1863 and Léon de Rosny taught there. He had not had the experience of visiting Japan, however, he proactively interacted with delegations dispatched to Europe from Japan and exchange students. In the diaries and memoirs of Rosny's Japanese friends, his name appears frequently. One of these people, Fukuzawa Yukichi, used English in conversation during his stay in Europe, however his letters to Rosny were written in Japanese, and he helped Rosny study Japanese by adding furigana and English, etc. Following Rosny, whose achievements were recorded in the delegation's diaries and reports, let us summarise Rosny's activities through the 1860s to 1870s.

6 Italy's Japanese Language Education and Japan Research

        In 19th century Italy, there were already three institutions where the Japanese language was being taught. Italy's first Japanese scholar, Antelmo Severini, studied Chinese and Japan in Paris, and after returning to Italy, he taught Chinese and Japanese at the University of Florence. Even in the city of commerce, Venice, Japanese language education commenced, and Japanese national lecturers taught. Italy's Japanese research was continued into the 20th century by the students of that time, and dictionaries, textbooks, and translations were published. Japanese scholar M. Muccioli, known to play an active role in the 20th century with the translation of the Hojoki (Account of a Ten Foot Square Hut), also left great achievements in Italian historical Japanology. Let us summarise how Italians’ Japanese language research and Japan research progress, from Severini to Muccioli, with the people and publications as a focus.

7 Early 20th Century: Russia's Japanese Language Education 

        In Russia after the first Sino–Japanese War, the Vladivostock Oriental Studies Institute was established as a businessman training institute for the Far East problem. In the Japanese language department, Spalvin and Maeda Seiji taught; high achievers were obligated to do a study tour in Japan. Japanese newspapers reported details about the Japan language education in Russia. I wonder in what way every Japanese newspaper at that time was taken with Japanese language education abroad. In what way were the Vladivostock Oriental Studies Institute's Japanese language lecturers and courses reported, let us summarise using newspaper archives. Furthermore, newspaper archives can be used at university and public libraries that contract with companies, however the period of the newspapers that can be read differs. In the library of the Japan Newspaper Museum (Yokohama-shi Naka-ku Nihon Odori) the whole country's major newspapers are stored.

8 Poland's Japanese Language Education and Japan Research

        The exchange between Japan and Poland stems from a personal and accidental event, and Japan research also began in that course of events. Father of Polish independence (Józef Piłsudski)'s brother, Bronisław Piłsudski, was implicated in the assassination of the Russian emperor and was exiled to Sakhalin, however, folklorist research was carried out there, he left the rokan (record of ancestors) and provided valuable materials on Ainu culture. In addition, the Japanese language education started at Warsaw Univerity, was also continued in the 1930s by Umeda Yoshitada and Moriya Hisashi, however due to the Nazi German invasion of Poland, they were unavoidably made to leave the country and teaching was interrupted. It is stated that Japanese language student at that time and leading person in ancient literature, W. Kotansky, secretly carried out Japan research in Nazi controlled Poland. It is stated that Kotansky secretly carried out Japan research in Nazi controlled Poland. Let us summarise with people as a focus, in Poland, amidst its control by other countries, such as Imperial Russia and Nazi Germany, what kind of image of Japan was formed, and if Japanese language education and Japan research was carried out.

9 Ottoman Turkey's Japanese Language Education

        At the end of the 19th century Japanese language course began in Istanbul's military academy. It originated in the 1890 shipwreck of the Ottoman Empire warship, Ertuğrul, off the coast of Wakayama Prefecture, and due to the vast number of casualties stemming from this, a massive donation was gathered in Japan and this was passed to Turkey. The person who handed over the money to the Ottoman Sultan was Jiji Shimpo's Noda Shotaro. At this time, Noda was requested by the Turkish side to stay and study Turkish language and culture, while teaching Japanese. Noda, while teaching Japanese language, sent numerous articles for Japan as a newspaper reporter. Let us summarise Noda's activities, and the circumstances of the Japanese language class.

10 Language Research of Finland's Ramstedt

        G. J. Ramstedt (1873–1950), is known as an Altai language teacher and comparative linguistics scholar, however he is the person who first taught the Japanese language in Finland. From 1920 he stayed in Japan for approximately 10 years as the charge d'affaires resident in Japan, carried out lectures in Esperanto, studied Japanese and Korean, interacted with many scholars such as Shiratori Kuraichi, and exerted influence on Japanese folklorists and comparative linguistics study. Let us summarise the gist of Ramstedt's language research, including Japanese, and the research interchange of the Japanese national scholars.

11 Australia's Japanese Language Education

        Australia began Japanese language education in secondary education in 1910, and by 1919 even the University of Melbourne carried out Japanese language education. On the other hand, in the 1930s, an international cultural promotion association was established, Japanese people living in Australia were able to teach Japanese. However, in 1941, the Japanese army landed on the Malay Peninsula and Australia made a declaration of war to Japan, and resident Japanese people were sent to internment camps as "enemy alien[s]." For this treatment, Japanese national teachers stated, "This is an unjust treatment of we who have served Australia's national interests through Japanese language education," and sued the Australian government. In contrast, the Australian side said, "This lecturer's Japanese language teaching ability was not high enough to serve the national interests of Australia, and was exceedingly unskillful,"  "He was deliberately ineffective in Japan language education, and interfered with Australia's national interest",  "the international cultural promotion association interfered with Australia's interests," and the point at issue in the trial extended from Japan language education teaching ability to the goal of the international cultural promotion association's activities. With the background of the occurrence of this kind of dispute, let us summarise what kind of cognisance the Australian side had in regards to Japanese language education, and opinions of "national interest."

12 Mitsui Takaharu's Cultural Affairs

        Mitsui Takaharu (1900–1983), on the basis of the Mitsui zaibatsu's funds, for the sake of European understanding of Japan, made various donations with the goal of Japan and Japanese language research. Here, he is a presence known by the name of Baron Mitsui. Staying in Europe in the 1930s, he sensed the view here vs. that of Asia, the view in regards to Japan, he harboured misgivings about the Japanese government's European cultural affairs, and carried out donation activities. Let us summarise Mitsui Takaharu's thoughts as to cultural affairs, the projects he implemented and their evaluation.

13　 America during World War II: Oral communication Training

        During World War II the USA’s army and navy gave all efforts to enemy language education. The goal of training language soldiers was intelligence activities and cryptanalysis, prisoner interrogation, etc. At the outbreak of the Pacific War, intelligence networks were established across the whole of the Pacific front, and the army and navy respectively trained their language soldiers in their duties. Amongst them, the army established Japanese language education in 1943 by the "Army Specialized Training Program" (ASTP) in order to support the further requests accompanying the expansion of the front. This plan was for training to improve oral communication by intensive language education, entrusted to and implemented by Harvard and Yale universities. This method of teaching, also called Army Method, brought about great "results" in a short period of time and influenced foreign languages education in the post-war United States. What kind of place was the ASTP and what were their teaching methods. Let's summarise the context of the "success."

14　 America during World War II: Reading Comprehension Training

        One of the duties of linguist soldiers was the deciphering of seized documents such as military paperwork. Graduates of the Military Intelligence Service Language School (MISLS) were responsible for such duties. They are said to have made a major contribution in advantageously guiding the United States in the state of the war. After the war, the school was handed over to the United States Department of Defense's Defense Language Institute, and even today many languages are taught there. Let us summarise the educational subjects of this school and its transition afterwards.

15　 Japanese Language Education in the United Kingdom during World War II

        Amongst the Allied forces in World War II, Britain was a country that tackled the training of language soldiers who spoke Japanese. In February 1942, when the Japanese army occupied the British territory of Singapore, at the University of London which was in charge of oriental language courses, as practical Japanese language education was insufficient, the University of London Oriental Faculty took the initiative, and commenced Japanese language education for the training of language soldiers' that same year in May. In this school, middle class or higher children with high IQs and college students who had excellent grades in other foreign languages were gathered, short-term intensive training was conducted, and by 1947 it had sent out up to 648 graduates. They were dispatched to Britain's territories in East Asia, and after the war they were stationed in Japan under military occupation. After the war, from amongst them, people who researched Japanese culture and society appeared and led Japanese Studies in Europe. Let us summarise what kind of Japanese language courses were established at the University of London,  as well as the activities of the graduates after the war.

16　 Heritage Language Education for People of Japanese Ancestry (Nikkei) in Hawaii

        In terms of migration from Japan to overseas, the first immigration to Hawaii was in 1868, but in the early 20th century, this also expanded to South America. In the migration areas, Japanese language education was started for children; however the areas were shook by the dissonance between Japanese loyalty and patriotism education and the assimilation policies advocated by the migration areas. In the United States, including Hawaii, it is stated that even while being subject to the pressure of the Foreign Language School Control Bill (1920), Immigration Act of 1924, etc., textbooks were created, and children went to Japanese language school after classes. Let us summarise the transition of Japanese language education as regards immigrants of Japanese descent in Hawaii and the features of the textbooks that were compiled in that region.

17　 Heritage Language Education for People of Japanese Ancestry in Brazil

        Since 1908, Brazil was the country to which most Japanese people emigrated. In the Taisho Primary School, which is known as Brazil's oldest educational institution for people of Japanese ancestry (established in 1915), education such as Japanese language and morals, spelling, arithmetic, singing, and gymnastics was carried out, and it became a central presence as a Japanese language school. During World War II, Brazil, which stood with the Allied forces, closed Japanese schools, and banned the publication of Japanese language newspapers, however bilingual second-generation Japanese teachers carried out Portuguese language education, and this school was protected. Although two languages and two culture education had been carried out in Brazil since before the war, I wonder how this education was advanced.

©2014 Yoshimi OGAWA